The Battle of Horseshoe Bend, also referred to as Tohopeka, Cholocco Litabixbee, or The Horseshoe, took place on March 27, 1814, during the War of 1812 in what is now central Alabama. It marked a pivotal point in American history as Major General Andrew Jackson’s forces, including a large contingent of Cherokee allies, decisively defeated the Red Sticks, a faction of the Creek Indian tribe opposed to American expansion, effectively ending the Creek War and significantly contributing to the American occupation of the Southeast.
The Creek nation, a strong tribe native to Georgia and the eastern part of the Mississippi Territory, was heavily fractured by the early 19th century. The Red Sticks, or the Upper Creek, staunchly resisted American expansion and cultural assimilation, often siding with British and Spanish colonial authorities. In contrast, the Lower Creek, heavily influenced by the neighboring Cherokees, had adopted a quasi-European lifestyle encompassing aspects of agriculture, religion, and diplomacy. This faction had a closer relationship with the U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins and generally supported American interests, mirroring the Cherokee approach to preserving tribal autonomy.
Tensions escalated within the Creek nation around 1811-1812, fueled by the Shawnee war leader Tecumseh’s efforts to recruit warriors for his fight against American territorial encroachment. The Red Sticks, already advocating for the revival of traditional religious and cultural practices, began raiding American frontier settlements, sparking what is now known as the Creek Civil War. The division between the Upper and Lower Creeks led to the Battle of Burnt Corn Creek in the summer of 1813, when a group of Red Sticks returning from Pensacola with British firearms was ambushed by militia troops. This event triggered an escalation of hostilities, eventually leading to the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.
By March 1814, Jackson had assembled a force of 3,300 regulars, militiamen, Lower Creeks, and a significant number of Cherokee allies. They set up camp six miles north of Horseshoe Bend, near the fortified Red Stick village of Tehopeka, situated on a peninsula created by the bend in the Tallapoosa River. Jackson cleverly divided his force, sending his second in command, General John Coffee, and around 1,300 men—comprising militiamen, Lower Creeks, and Cherokees—on a wide flanking maneuver to cross the river and encircle the Red Sticks.
Coffee’s men secured Red Stick canoes, which enabled Colonel Gideon Morgan’s Cherokee Regiment to cross the river and assault Tehopeka directly. This diversion allowed Jackson to command his most elite unit, the 39th U.S. Infantry, to storm the fortification at the peninsula’s neck. The intensity of the fighting quickly escalated, and tragically, no distinction was made between Red Stick warriors and non-combatants.
The Battle of Horseshoe Bend was a catastrophic defeat for the Red Sticks, with over 800 of their 1,000 warriors killed. The surviving Red Sticks, led by Chief Menawa, who had miraculously survived despite being wounded seven times, retreated and ultimately joined the Seminole tribe in Spanish Florida.
In the aftermath of the battle, the Creek nation was forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson on August 9, 1814. The treaty stipulated the surrender of 22 million acres—roughly half of Alabama and part of southern Georgia—to the United States. This territory included land inhabited not only by the Red Sticks but also the Lower Creek, who had been allies of the U.S. during the conflict.
This defeat set the stage for further Indian removals throughout the Southeast, with many Creeks ultimately being forced west onto reservations in Oklahoma during the 1830s as part of the infamous “Trail of Tears” following the Indian Removal Act of 1830.
